The subjective well-being penalty of same-sex couples relative to different-sex couples in Europe

Despite major advances in the legal recognition of same-sex couples across Europe, persistent social stigma and institutional inequalities may continue to shape their subjective well-being (SWB). This study examines whether individuals in same-sex couples report lower levels of SWB than those in different-sex couples and how two key dimensions of structural stigma—legal recognition of same-sex couples and societal acceptance of homosexuality—shape disparities in SWB. Using pooled data from ten rounds of the European Social Survey (2004–2023), covering 37 countries, we estimate regression models to assess the SWB penalty of individuals in same-sex relative to different-sex couples. We further test cross-level interactions between being in a same-sex (versus different-sex) couple and country-level indicators of structural stigma. Our results show that individuals in same-sex couples report significantly lower levels of SWB than those in different-sex couples, net of socio-demographic and economic controls. This penalty is strongly conditioned by context, however. In countries without legal recognition of same-sex couples, the well-being penalty is largest, whereas in countries recognizing civil unions or same-sex marriage, the penalty becomes statistically indistinguishable from zero. Higher levels of societal acceptance similarly attenuate the penalty in life satisfaction. These findings highlight the central role of legal and cultural environments in shaping well-being inequalities between individuals in same- and different-sex couples and emphasize the importance of structural inclusion for reducing minority stress in contemporary Europe.