Preserving the Past: The 3D Documentation of Ötzi, the Iceman Mummy, and Its Archaeological Context

The three-dimensional (3D) documentation of the Similaun mummy (Ötzi the Iceman) and the associated Copper Age equipment and clothing presents unique challenges due to diverse material properties and strict conservation constraints. This study presents a comprehensive digital preservation workflow, primarily utilizing Structure from Motion (SfM) close-range photogrammetry (a method that reconstructs precise 3D geometry from overlapping 2D digital photographs), integrated with Image-Based Modeling (IBM) and Neural Radiance Field (NeRF) algorithms (a machine learning approach that models a complex scene as a continuous volumetric function method). To overcome the non-Lambertian properties of the mummy’s protective ice layer and wet skin (surfaces that reflect light specularly rather than diffusely, creating glares that can disorient standard reconstruction algorithms), a specialized Polarized Light Photography (PLP) strategy was implemented using custom-built hardware. This integration required advanced anatomical segmentation to resolve postural discrepancies caused by taphonomic processes. The resulting web-based application provides the scientific community with a metrically accurate digital twin, featuring interactive tools for cross-sectioning and X-ray visualization. By adopting a Free/Libre and Open-Source Software (FLOSS) ecosystem, this project establishes a sustainable, modular framework for future forensic investigations and diachronic monitoring, ensuring the long-term digital life of one of the world’s most significant archaeological finds.