The Altitudinal Paradox: Biomass dependence, emissions, and sustainable pathways in the Garhwal Himalaya

Mountain communities of the Garhwal Himalaya depend extensively on forest biomass for household energy and livestock production; however, quantitative assessments linking altitudinal variation in biomass use with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remain limited. This study quantified fuelwood and fodder consumption and estimated associated GHG emissions across three altitudinal zones (700–1200, 1200–1700 and 1700–2200 m asl) in Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India. Household data were collected from 135 randomly selected households using a multistage sampling design. Fuelwood consumption was measured through direct household observations, whereas methane emissions from livestock were estimated using the IPCC (2006) Tier-1 methodology. Emissions from fuelwood combustion were calculated using internationally accepted biomass carbon conversion factors. Statistical differences among altitude zones and seasons were evaluated using two-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey's HSD test. Fuelwood consumption increased significantly with altitude, ranging from 13.22 kg household⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the lower zone to 17.05 kg household⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the upper zone (p < 0.001), with maximum consumption occurring during winter. Average fodder demand also increased from 19.06 to 21.54 kg ACU⁻¹ day⁻¹ along the altitudinal gradient. Estimated annual livestock methane emissions ranged from 9.41 to 12.87 t CH₄ year⁻¹ across the study zones, reflecting greater livestock density at higher elevations. Biomass-derived carbon emissions similarly increased with altitude because of greater dependence on forest resources and higher household energy requirements. The results demonstrate that altitude strongly influences household biomass dependence, livestock management and associated emission profiles in Himalayan agro-pastoral systems. These findings provide quantitative evidence to support altitude-specific strategies to improve rural energy access, promote sustainable fodder management and strengthen climate-smart forest management in mountain regions. Such targeted interventions can contribute to reducing biomass dependence and associated greenhouse gas emissions while supporting sustainable livelihoods and ecosystem management in mountain regions.