Carrier-Assisted Nanomaterials and Microbial Dynamics in Advanced Wastewater Treatment: A Review

Nanomaterials (NMs) have shown broad application potential in wastewater deep treatment, but the actual application is constrained by some issues such as nanoparticle (NP) aggregation and poor recyclability. Different from previous comprehensive reviews, this article systematically synthesizes data from over 100 peer-reviewed studies (2012 to 2026) to review the preparation methods, purification mechanisms, and removal efficiencies for various pollutants, and the technical and economic feasibility of NMs, with an emphasis on carrier-assisted immobilization and NM–microbial aggregate interactions. To start with, the methods of preparation were roughly distinguished into two categories which were “top-down” and “bottom-up” methods. The advantages, disadvantages, and utilities of the physical, chemical, and eco-friendly methods of biosynthesis were investigated while paying particular attention to the function of the loading technique in preventing NP aggregation and improving recyclability. By using the technique of loading in the carrier, the growth of NPs could be restricted up to 2–50 nm. Secondly, seven basic mechanisms that underlie the process of removing pollutants by using NPs were explained: adsorption, catalytic degradation, ion exchange, surface complexation, antibacterial action, redox transformation, and waste recycling. Particular focus was placed on understanding the interactions between NMs, microbial aggregates, and extracellular polymeric substances in wastewater treatment systems. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) could capture >90% NMs and mitigate their toxicity. Once again, the removal efficiency and main influencing factors associated with different types of NMs, for the treatment of heavy metals, dyes, antibiotics, and pathogenic microorganisms were summarized. Removal efficiencies of the pollutants ranged from 70% to over 99%, but these values were strongly influenced by pH and matrix and often decreased substantially in real wastewater. The existing literature was used to classify the experimental substrates (single-solute systems, multi-solute synthetic systems, municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater, secondary effluent). The performance of NMs in different categories was compared, revealing the huge performance gap between ideal laboratory conditions and practical applications. Lastly, the economic viability of the methods based on the use of NMs for purifying water was assessed taking into consideration various factors such as raw materials’ prices, energy costs of the process of making materials, recyclability of the materials, and the possibility of introducing the use of NMs on a larger scale. Unlike existing reviews, this article aims to provide a quantitative mechanistic framework bridging the rational design, safe application, and engineering promotion of NMs in deep wastewater treatment.