Why do stakeholders (not) participate in co-creation for energy access? A behavioural analysis of the Netherlands Energy Compact

Multi-stakeholder collaboration platforms are widely promoted as a way to accelerate progress on global challenges such as ensuring universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy. Yet little is known about why individual stakeholders choose to participate (or not) in these arrangements, and what determines the depth of their engagement. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with 21 professionals associated with the Netherlands Energy Compact, this study applies the Capability-Opportunity-Motivation-Behaviour (COM B) framework to explain variation in participation. We identify three levels of involvement: low (attending events), medium (contributing to working groups) and high (shaping collective decisions). Most participation occurs at the lowest level. While stakeholders possess strong personal capabilities and motivation, deeper engagement is constrained by external barriers, particularly limited access to finance and declining funding opportunities. The findings further suggest that the COM-B framework requires adaptation for multi-stakeholder settings, as single factors such as funding may simultaneously influence capability, opportunity and motivation. By adapting the COM-B framework to the context of multi-stakeholder co-creation, this study provides a behavioural lens for understanding differences in participation intensity. For practitioners, the results highlight actionable priorities, including strengthening financing mechanisms, improving cross-organisational coordination, and designing more effective collaborative processes to enable stakeholders to move from passive participation to active co-creation in initiatives addressing sustainable development goals.