Sources, synthesis, physicochemical and functional properties of Monascus pigments and their encapsulation strategies for food applications

Abstract Monascus pigments (MPs), derived from Monascus fermentation, exhibit excellent biological activities and exceptional coloring capabilities. However, their broader application in the food industry is significantly hindered by their susceptibility to environmental degradation and the potential risk of citrinin contamination. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the sources, biosynthesis pathways, extraction methodologies, physicochemical properties, and functional characteristics of MPs. Moreover, we critically evaluate current MP delivery systems, highlighting their limitations in achieving controlled release within complex food matrices. To overcome these challenges, this paper proposes a forward-looking research framework, emphasizing that the rational integration of stimuli-responsive smart materials and 3D printing technology enhances the functional stability of MPs. Furthermore, this review underscores the critical interplay between upstream fermentation regulation (to minimize citrinin) and downstream smart encapsulation (to maximize stability). By bridging safe, efficient extraction with precise, controlled release, this proposed system aims to establish a comprehensive technical ecosystem, ultimately facilitating the high-value utilization of MPs in modern food applications.