Electrical impedance for studying microbial biofilms: dynamics, disruption, and susceptibility

Microbial biofilms contribute significantly to chronic and device-associated infections, exhibiting pronounced tolerance to antimicrobial therapies and host immunity. This review evaluates real-time electrical impedance-based technologies as complementary, label-free platforms for dynamic biofilm monitoring. We examine their applications in characterizing biofilm development, antimicrobial susceptibility, polymicrobial communities, and post-treatment regrowth, while discussing key methodological limitations, standardization requirements, and their potential to advance translational biofilm research and individualized infection management.