The protection and security of Christian holy sites: an environmental criminology approach with an emphasis on place-based factors

Abstract Christian holy sites combine high symbolic value with routine public accessibility and often contain valuable heritage objects. This combination of permeability, visibility constraints, and limited guardianship can generate vulnerability to routine harms such as vandalism, theft, and unauthorised entry and, more rarely, targeted hostility. Drawing on environmental criminology, situational crime prevention, and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), this mixed-methods study examines prevention-relevant conditions at Christian holy sites in Hungary. The study integrates structured site audits of 25 sites with site-level indicators of incident exposure and 75 semi-structured interviews with clergy, administrators, and law enforcement stakeholders. Audits identify recurring opportunity structures for problem behaviors linked to access management, lighting and natural surveillance, territorial cues, and maintenance, while interviews document persistent implementation constraints (resources, staffing, and coordination) alongside locally adaptive responses. Findings support a layered, proportionate prevention model that strengthens basic guardianship and environmental visibility without undermining the welcoming character of worship spaces.