Molecular and Genomic Mechanisms Linking Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontitis: From Pathogenesis to Translational Opportunities

Diabetes mellitus and periodontitis are bidirectionally associated chronic disorders linked through metabolic dysregulation, host inflammation, microbial dysbiosis, and impaired tissue remodeling. This review summarizes clinical, molecular, cellular, genomic, epigenomic, transcriptomic, and microbial evidence concerning the mechanisms underlying this relationship and their potential translational relevance. Chronic hyperglycemia is associated with advanced glycation end product signaling through the receptor for advanced glycation end products, mitogen-activated protein kinase/nuclear factor-κB activation, reactive oxygen species production, oxidative stress, and NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 inflammasome activation, which may contribute to enhanced cytokine responses and periodontal tissue injury. Diabetes is also associated with altered neutrophil and macrophage function, increased T helper 17/interleukin-17 signaling, and an elevated receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand/osteoprotegerin ratio, thereby favoring osteoclastogenesis and alveolar bone loss. Conversely, periodontal inflammation and microbial products may contribute to systemic low-grade inflammation, insulin resistance, and metabolic dysregulation. Multi-omics studies have identified shared susceptibility loci, regulatory networks, and disease-associated cell states, although their causal and clinical significance remains incompletely defined. These findings suggest potential roles for integrated medical–dental care, glycemic screening in dental settings, periodontal inflammation control, host-modulatory therapies, and regenerative biomaterials. Further longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to determine their clinical applicability.