THGCDTR-RP: A triple-hybrid swarm intelligence and tree-based routing protocol for energy-efficient wireless sensor networks

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are widely used in environmental monitoring, smart agriculture, and Internet of Things applications, but their performance is constrained by limited battery capacity, uneven energy consumption, and inefficient routing. To address these issues, this paper proposes THGCDTR-RP, an energy-efficient clustering and routing protocol that integrates Grey Wolf Optimizer, Cheetah Optimizer, and Differential Evolution for cluster-head (CH) selection. The proposed CH selection strategy jointly considers residual energy, node centrality, intra-cluster compactness, and cluster-size balance, while an energy-aware minimum spanning tree mechanism constructs multi-hop routing paths among CHs and the base station (BS). Extensive MATLAB-based simulations under different network sizes, node densities, and BS locations show that THGCDTR-RP consistently outperforms LEACH, LPSO, LGWO, WOA-P, and LACO. For example, in the $$50 \\times 50$$ network size, THGCDTR-RP increases the number of packets received at the BS by 144.4%, 83.3%, 89.7%, 77.4%, and 93.1% compared with LEACH, LPSO, LACO, LGWO, and WOA-P, respectively. It also improves the first-node-death round by 271.5%, 71.9%, 78.2%, 65.2%, and 103.0%, and extends the all-node-death round by 17.78%, 44.46%, 46.63%, 35.22%, and 51.17% over the same baselines, respectively.