Digital literacy and technology adoption readiness of vocational school teachers: An extended UTAUT model in Indonesia

The digital transformation of education requires teachers' readiness to adopt technology, particularly in vocational schools where industry-relevant skills are central. This study extends the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) by integrating digital literacy and training as external variables. A quantitative survey involving 200 vocational teachers in Jambi City was analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The participants were selected using a stratified random sampling technique, with strata based on school type (public and private) and teaching specialization (technical and non-technical fields) to ensure proportional representation and enhance the generalizability of the findings. Results show that digital literacy significantly influences performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. Among UTAUT constructs, performance expectancy and effort expectancy were the strongest predictors of behavioral intention, while training, social influence, and facilitating conditions showed no direct effects. These findings highlight the central role of digital literacy in shaping key UTAUT perceptions, while the perceived quality and relevance of technology training showed no significant direct association with behavioural intention in the model tested. The study contributes to UTAUT theory and provides practical implications for policymakers, stressing the need for contextualized, sustained professional development to strengthen teachers’ digital readiness.