Shepherds' perception of the effectiveness and feasibility of herd protection measures against wolf predation in Lower Saxony, Germany

Abstract The return of the wolf ( Canis lupus ) to Germany sparks discussions on how to best mitigate human–carnivore conflicts. While non‐lethal and lethal herd protection measures aim to decrease the predation of livestock and thus may help to reduce conflicts between livestock owners and wolves, knowledge about the effectiveness and feasibility of these measures is limited. To fill this gap, we conducted semi‐structured interviews with shepherds from Lower Saxony ( n = 12). We analyzed shepherds' attitudes toward wolves and evaluated their subjective assessment of herd protection measures. We also identified opportunities for government support to improve the shepherds' herd protection efforts. Hobby shepherds, shepherds with experience of surplus killings, and shepherds without any personal experiences of attacks tended to have negative attitudes toward wolves. Professional and part‐time shepherds and shepherds with experiences of minor attacks without surplus killings entailed slightly more neutral or positive attitudes. Evaluation of herd protection revealed that electric fences, followed by livestock guarding dogs, were considered the most effective measures relative to their cost and effort, whereas the use of donkeys and llamas ranked last. Generally, shepherds wished for more government subsidies for the follow‐up costs of dogs and the replacement of broken electric fences. Further, shepherds called for faster shooting permits for problematic wolves. In April 2026, wolves were added to Germany's Federal Hunting Act, though research and wildlife organizations consider this counterproductive.