Hydro-chemical variations of spring water quality in Matwi catchment – Salfeet / Palestine

Springs are the major source of groundwater in the Matwi catchment in the West Bank, Palestine. The objective of the research is to determine the variation characteristics of the spring water and their contribution to groundwater quality. The novelty of this study lies in the integration of multi-season physical, hydrochemical, trace-element, and microbiological analyses with hydrogeochemical classification techniques (Piper, Durov, and Wilcox diagrams) within a catchment-scale assessment. This integrated methodological framework enables simultaneous evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in groundwater quality while distinguishing the effects of carbonate lithology from anthropogenic pollution sources, thereby providing a comprehensive basis for groundwater quality assessment in a karst environment. The sampling campaigns were conducted for eight springs and one groundwater well for physical, hydrochemical, and microbiological analyses in 2019 and 2020. The hydrochemical parameters of the major ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, NO₃⁻), trace elements (Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Al, Pb, Cr, B, As, Se, Ba, Ti), and microbiological parameters including total and fecal coliforms were analyzed. The physical parameters of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured. The hydrochemical parameter concentrations showed slight to considerable spatial variations among the investigated springs. The spring water samples were classified using the Piper diagram, revealing an earth-alkaline water type with prevailing bicarbonate, while the Durov diagram identified a dominant calcium–magnesium–bicarbonate facies consistent with the karstic nature of the aquifer. The integrated interpretation of hydrochemical facies, trace-element distributions, and microbiological indicators allowed identification of localized influences of geological conditions and potential wastewater-related contamination pathways across the catchment. The microbial parameters of total and fecal coliforms showed similar variations between the two sampling campaigns. This integrated approach provides one of the first comprehensive hydrochemical characterizations of the Matwi catchment and offers a robust scientific framework for groundwater monitoring, pollution assessment, and integrated water resources management in Mediterranean karst catchments.