Pathways from visuomotor integration to mathematics: the mediating role of spatial ability in number line estimation performance among healthy young adults

Visuomotor Integration (VMI) plays a key role in mathematics performance, particularly through its connection with spatial-numerical associations. In a sample of healthy young adults (N = 101; mean age = 25.26 ± 3.75 years), this study examined pathways from VMI to number line estimation by manipulating the spatial precision demands of VMI tasks (high-VMI versus low-VMI). Participants completed assessments of VMI, spatial ability, number line estimation (a robust indicator associated with mathematics performance), and visuospatial working memory, with neural activities recorded by electroencephalogram during the VMI task. Structural equation modelling revealed a significant association between spatial ability and high-precision VMI, but not low-precision VMI. Mediation analysis showed that spatial ability fully mediated the high-VMI and number line estimation, but not low-VMI. Distinct neural dynamics were observed across spatial precision levels. These findings imply the importance of spatial precision in the VMI-spatial-mathematics pathway and provide theoretical insights into VMI’s contribution to mathematical development.