Does the enactment effect stem from visual cues? Investigating working memory for instructions in individuals with visual impairments

The ability to verbally recall instructions from working memory improves when those instructions are physically enacted during encoding, a phenomenon known as the enactment effect. This effect is thought to arise from the joint involvement of verbal and non-verbal systems. However, the role of visual input remains unclear. The present study investigated whether visual acuity contributes to the enactment effect, by comparing recall performance among visually impaired individuals. Fifty-one participants (32 female) were allocated into three groups: individuals with total vision loss, with residual vision, and with typical vision. Participants recalled instructions under two encoding conditions: spoken-only, where instructions were given verbally and self-enactment, where instructions were physically enacted before verbal recall. Results showed that enactment produced higher recall accuracy than spoken input alone, but no significant differences were found across visual acuity groups. Overall, the enactment effect does not appear to depend on visual input and may be supported by kinesthetic encoding, particularly in the absence of vision. In cases of residual vision, reduced benefit from enactment was observed, which may reflect uncertainty in modality dominance during encoding. The results highlight the role of modality integration in working memory and the robustness of the enactment effect across perceptual contexts.