Beyond One-Size-Fits-All: Using Farming Typologies to Navigate the NUE-Yield-GHG Nexus in Indian Cereal Systems

CONTEXT Intensive cereal production systems face the dual challenge of increasing food production while reducing environmental impacts, particularly greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with nitrogen fertilizer use. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is a critical lever linking crop productivity, input-use-efficiency, soil health, and climate mitigation. However, wide heterogeneity in farming practices across smallholder systems complicates the effectiveness of uniform nutrient management recommendations. Understanding how different farming typologies shape the nexus between NUE, crop yield, and GHG emissions is essential for advancing sustainable intensification in agriculture. OBJECTIVE The study evaluates the interlinkages between nitrogen use efficiency, crop productivity, and GHG emissions across diverse farming typologies for paddy, wheat, and maize, and identifies typology-specific pathways and policy-relevant strategies that can simultaneously improve yields, enhance NUE, and reduce GHG emissions. METHODS The analysis uses cost of cultivation data from over 16,000 farm households across India. Farmers were classified into distinct farming typologies using a weighted K-Modes clustering approach based on water management, tillage practices, residue management, crop varieties, and fertilizer use. GHG emissions were estimated using the CCAFS Mitigation Options Tool. The relationships between NUE, crop yield, and emissions were examined across typologies to identify dominant production pathways and performance trade-offs. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Results show that a substantial proportion of farmers operate outside the optimal NUE “safe operating zone” (i.e. 50–90% NUE) across all three cereals. Between 33% and 49% of farmers fall into low-NUE/low-yield conditions, indicating systemic inefficiencies rather than isolated management failures. Two dominant unsustainable pathways emerge: nitrogen-surplus systems that achieve moderate to high yields but exhibit low NUE and high emission intensity, and soil-mining systems characterized by very high NUE but inadequate nitrogen inputs, low yields, and long-term risks to soil fertility. In contrast, balanced management typologies, featuring improved varieties, residue incorporation, conservation tillage, and efficient water management, achieve competitive yields with lower emissions. These findings demonstrate that pursuing yield or NUE in isolation is counterproductive and that balanced, site-specific nutrient management is essential for sustainable outcomes. SIGNIFICANCE The study highlights the decisive role of farming typologies in shaping the NUE-Yield-GHG nexus and demonstrates the limitations of one-size-fits-all nutrient recommendations. The typology framework provides a practical and scalable tool for identifying “win–win” systems and high-risk pathways, enabling targeted, site-specific interventions to maximize synergies and minimize trade-offs. Policy implications include the need for nutrient rationalization in surplus systems, moderate intensification and soil restoration in soil-mining systems, and enabling institutional support such as soil testing, extension services, and appropriate subsidy structures. By guiding transitions toward balanced management typologies, this approach supports sustainable intensification, climate mitigation, and food security objectives in India and offers relevance for smallholder cereal systems globally.