Astragaloside IV and rapamycin co-loaded bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosome nanocarriers for targeted modulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a highly aggressive malignancy with poor therapeutic outcomes due to drug resistance, systemic toxicity, and limited tumor-targeted drug delivery. This study aimed to develop dual-drug-loaded exosome nanocarrier encapsulating rapamycin (RAP) and Astragaloside IV (AST-IV) (RAP@AST-IV/EXO NC) to inhibit PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and enhance mitochondrial apoptosis in HCC.Methods Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (BM-MSC-Exos) were isolated and used for co-delivery of RAP and AST-IV via sonication-assisted loading. Physicochemical properties, drug loading, and release behavior were evaluated. In vitro efficacy was assessed through cell viability, apoptosis, ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane potential, migration, and Western blot assays. In vivo therapeutic efficacy and safety were evaluated in male BALB/c mice bearing HepG2 xenografts.Results RAP@AST-IV/EXO NC showed favorable physicochemical characteristics, sustained drug release, enhanced apoptosis, increased ROS generation, mitochondrial membrane disruption, and inhibition of cancer cell migration. The RAP@AST-IV/EXO NC significantly reduced cell viability and suppressed phosphorylated PI3K, Akt, and mTOR expression while activating mitochondrial apoptotic markers. In vivo, RAP@AST-IV/EXO NC markedly inhibited tumor growth without evident systemic toxicity.Conclusion RAP@AST-IV/EXO NC represent a promising biocompatible strategy for targeted HCC therapy through combined PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibition and mitochondrial apoptosis induction.