Cumulative multi-species effects in human–wildlife conflict shift the focus beyond large animals in the Western Ghats

Understanding the drivers of residents’ unfavourable attitudes towards wildlife conservation is crucial for informing efforts to promote human–wildlife coexistence. Kerala, a part of the Western Ghats, is the first Indian state to declare Human–Wildlife Conflict (HWC) a state-specific disaster in 2024. Wayanad, a biodiversity-rich district in Kerala, has historically supported coexistence between wildlife and humans. However, increasing human population and land-use changes have coincided with rising HWCs in the region, including 44 human fatalities reported over the last decade. To identify conflict types and factors shaping negative attitudes towards wildlife, we conducted a questionnaire survey of 998 individuals from 49 villages across Wayanad (2130 km 2 ). Results showed that 84% of respondents had experienced HWCs, and 81% expressed negative perceptions towards wildlife conservation. We identified eight species as primary conflict-causers, with bonnet macaques and wild boars being the most problematic, while crop damage was the most commonly reported disturbance type (88%). Conflicts involving the highest number of wild species (up to six species) were reported from forest fringe areas. Negative perceptions towards wildlife were positively associated with the number of species encountered (β = − 0.275, p < 0.001) and with higher reported arrival frequencies and conflict intensities of major conflict-causing species, specifically monkeys and wild boars, highlighting the cumulative effects of multi-species conflict experience on attitudes towards wildlife. While existing HWC policies and media attention often focus only on high-impact species (e.g., elephant, tiger), our findings highlight the importance of adopting a broader perspective that accounts for the cumulative effects of frequent lower-intensity conflicts caused by multiple wildlife species.