Language Revitalization and Competence in Non-standard Varieties in Kalmykia and the Diaspora

Aims and objectives: This paper expands the analysis of competence in non-standard varieties in Kalmyk across generations. It examines how non-family pathways to language acquisition contribute to the persistence of linguistic competence over time and facilitate the inclusion of younger generations of speakers into the Kalmyk speech community. The study challenges the assumption of homogeneity within this speaker group by analyzing diverse non-family paths to language competence, including young learners, diaspora members, elderly re-learners, and “new speakers” from previous generations. Design and methodology: The study employs a qualitative, ethnographic approach combining linguistic biography analysis with observations of language practices. It investigates how individuals acquire, maintain, and use Kalmyk outside traditional family transmission contexts. Data and analysis: The analysis is based on 45 interviews with Kalmyk speakers across generations and geographical locations, fieldwork observations in Kalmykia (2006–2008, 2014–2018), and online interviews with diaspora members (2023). The data are analyzed to identify patterns in language acquisition trajectories, speaker identities, and forms of participation in the Kalmyk speech community. Findings: The analysis reveals that speakers with competence in non-standard varieties form a diverse group in terms of age, motivation, competence, and social context. Despite limited input, many heritage-language speakers integrate into the speech community, contributing to both language maintenance and change. Language attitudes in the community range from supportive to critical, often influenced by perceptions of linguistic authenticity. Originality: This study expands the concepts of competence in non-standard varieties and new speakers by incorporating the diachronic dimension of the speech community and by including older learners shaped by historical and diasporic experiences. Implications: The findings highlight the importance of previous experiences with non-family language transmission as a potentially crucial factor in sustainable language maintenance. They suggest that revitalization efforts should recognize diverse pathways to language competence and acknowledge the role of non-traditional speakers in sustaining minority languages.