Climate change vulnerability among pineapple agroforestry farmers in the Indian sub-Himalayas

The Hmar community of the Indian sub-Himalayas has shifted from traditional shifting agriculture to economically viable pineapple-based ( Ananas comosus ) agroforestry, helping manage economic crises while providing environmental benefits. However, the functioning and essential ecosystem services of these systems are under increasing threat from climate change, jeopardising food and livelihood security. Understanding the ecological, economic, and social dimensions of vulnerability at the micro-level is essential for identifying stressors and ensuring sustainable agroforestry practices. To assess socio-ecological vulnerability, 122 households were surveyed across five villages using the IPCC climate vulnerability framework, complemented by focus group discussions to understand community-level adaptive strategies. Principal Component Analysis identified key components, followed by aggregation to measure exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The entropy method was applied to assign village-level weights for sensitivity and adaptive capacity to construct a composite vulnerability index. Most households lived in semi-pakka houses and a nucleated family structure. Farmers’ education levels ranged from primary to matriculation, with an average monthly income of about US$120. Villages with higher climate susceptibility experience erratic temperature and precipitation patterns and frequent extreme events, negatively impacting pineapple productivity, further exacerbated by the lack of irrigation infrastructure. Households heavily reliant on pineapple cultivation are more vulnerable to climate change disruptions. These factors contribute to higher climate sensitivity in Saisel Punjee (0.35) and Lobonkhal (0.32), reflecting greater socio-ecological vulnerability. Villages lacking strong social networks, sufficient infrastructure, and diversified income sources show reduced adaptive capacity. In contrast, villages implementing resilient farm management strategies, such as diverse tree integration, erosion control, reduced tillage, proper residue handling, pest and disease control, and optimised crop density, function as effective Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and reduce climate vulnerability. Adaptive capacity was stronger in Kolom Punjee (0.27) and Hmarkhawlein (0.28), leading to lower vulnerability. Strengthening resilience requires supportive policies, expanded market access, promotion of small-scale enterprises, alternative livelihoods, and investments in education, rural infrastructure, and ecosystem restoration.