From precision to purpose using SmartStation technology in urban cadastral systems

This study evaluated the positional performance and operational efficiency of Total Station (TPS), Real-Time Kinematic (RTK), and SmartStation (SS) methods for urban cadastral surveying application. Field measurements were conducted on a controlled network of ten checkpoints established using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) static observations and adjusted traverse methods. Positional accuracy was assessed using root mean square error (RMSE), two-dimensional standard deviation, and Accuracy 95 , while operational efficiency was evaluated based on total observation time. Inferential statistical analyses, including a two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) without replication and Bonferroni-adjusted paired-sample t-tests, were performed to determine whether differences among the surveying methods were statistically significant. TPS achieved the highest positional accuracy, with a horizontal RMSE of 0.013 m, followed by SS (0.023 m) and RTK (0.037 m). The ANOVA revealed a significant effect of surveying method on horizontal positional accuracy (F(2,18) = 14.829, p < 0.001). Pairwise comparisons showed that TPS and SS both produced significantly lower positional errors than RTK ( p < 0.01), whereas no statistically significant difference was observed between TPS and SS ( p = 0.029). TPS and SS satisfied the national cadastral Accuracy requirement, while RTK slightly exceeded the prescribed threshold. Although TPS provided the highest descriptive accuracy, SS achieved statistically comparable positional performance while substantially reducing field survey time through the integration of GNSS and total station technologies. These findings demonstrate that SS represents an effective and efficient alternative for urban cadastral surveying, supporting reliable, scalable, and sustainable land administration in line with Sustainable Development Goals 1.4 and 11.3.