Carbon-engineered perovskite solar cells for stable and scalable photovoltaics

Abstract Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a leading candidate for next-generation photovoltaic technologies, owing to their high-power conversion efficiencies, cost-effective manufacturing, and versatile material properties. However, their widespread commercialization remains hindered by issues related to stability, scalability, and environmental concerns. The incorporation of carbon-based materials into PSCs presents a sustainable strategy to enhance both performance and longevity. This review examines recent developments in carbon-based perovskite solar cells (C-PSCs), with a particular focus on the roles of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes, graphene derivatives, graphite, and carbon black as viable alternatives to expensive and less stable metal components. It discusses the architecture and operating principles of PSCs, fabrication methodologies for both traditional and carbon-based designs, and key innovations that have improved the efficiency and durability of C-PSCs. The review also explores emerging applications such as flexible and building-integrated photovoltaics, while comparing the performance and sustainability of C-PSCs with their metal-based counterparts. Finally, it addresses critical challenges—including interfacial engineering, reproducibility, and large-scale manufacturing, and outlines future research directions aimed at enabling the commercial viability and environmental sustainability of C-PSCs.