Integrating macrophage biology and bioengineering for vascularization in regenerative medicine

Macrophages play central roles in vascularization during tissue regeneration through their dynamic immunomodulatory and angiogenic functions. This review summarizes strategies to regulate vascularization by directly delivering macrophages, cytokines, or extracellular vesicles, and by modulating macrophage phenotypes using biomaterials, drugs, physical cues, and cellular interactions. Tissue-specific macrophage regulation in bone, skin, heart, muscle, and nerve regeneration is discussed, together with challenges and emerging bioengineering technologies for precise spatiotemporal control of vascularization.