Perceived technology readiness of maritime autonomous surface ship technologies

Abstract The advancement of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) represents a major shift in the maritime industry, promising enhanced efficiency, safety, and sustainability in short-sea shipping (SSS). This study explores the technology readiness level (TRL) of core technologies for fully autonomous MASS operation in the SSS context. A systematic literature review identified 15 such technologies across four operational phases: open-sea navigation, berthing, mooring, and shore-to-ship communication. These comprise both baseline maritime technologies already mature in conventional shipping (e.g., GPS, RADAR, VHF radio, satellites) and autonomy-specific technologies whose maturity directly conditions MASS readiness (e.g., collision avoidance algorithms, intelligent detection algorithms, on-board robotic systems). The perceived TRL of these technologies is assessed based on a survey of relevant stakeholders. On-board robotic systems, augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR), 3D measurement using dense stereo vision, and intelligent detection algorithms (IDA) are the technologies with lowest perceived TRL. A technology roadmap analysis is conducted too considering up to a 20-year timeline, which suggests that on-board robotic systems technology is likely to take the longest time to reach highest TRL. The findings highlight the MASS technologies that need more attention from academia and industry for further development of MASS.