A systematic review of divine forgiveness self-report measures

Abstract Background Divine forgiveness (DF) can be defined as the perception of being absolved from sin by a Higher Power. Psychological research is increasingly recognizing DF as a relevant construct with implications for well-being, coping, and spirituality. Despite this growing awareness, empirical studies on DF have often relied on conceptually and psychometrically questionable measures, limiting theoretical and cross-cultural advancement. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing quantitative self-report measures of DF, assessing their characteristics and psychometric properties. Methods A systematic search was conducted across four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and PubMed), following PRISMA guidelines. Results Sixty studies met inclusion criteria, most of them based on U.S. samples and employing short, predominantly unidimensional scales. Our analysis showed that the majority of instruments captured general beliefs about having been forgiven by God while only a few explicitly assessed experiential, emotional, or multidimensional aspects of DF. Psychometric evidence was limited: most studies reported only internal consistency, while factorial validity, invariance across groups, and broader validity evidence were rarely examined. Conclusions Overall, these findings highlight the need to develop theoretically grounded and psychometrically robust instruments that assess the multiple facets of the experience of DF, and that are sensitive to cultural and religious diversity. The available DF measures should be considered preliminary tools that require further development in order to fully capture the complex, multidimensional, and culturally embedded nature of the construct.