Effect of fabric architecture on ballistic performance of three-dimensional woven structures: angle-interlock, orthogonal, and layer-to-layer configurations—a comparative review

Three-dimensional (3D) woven fabrics offer superior through-thickness integrity and delamination resistance over conventional 2D laminates for ballistic protection. Among 3D architectures, angle-interlock (AI), orthogonal (ORT), and layer-to-layer (LTL) configurations have received the most sustained research attention, yet a systematic cross-architectural comparison has been lacking. This review synthesizes over 70 studies (1992–2026) to examine how binder yarn geometry governs energy dissipation, in which frictional dissipation—encompassing yarn pull-out and crossover sliding as a single dominant mechanism—competes with fiber tensile failure, cone formation, and delamination. Under normalized areal density, ORT achieves the highest ballistic limit velocity (statistically significant, p < 0.01), while LTL shows a modest specific energy absorption advantage that does not reach statistical significance, reflecting limited sample size across directly comparable studies. Rather than functioning as flexible soft armor, 3D woven architectures are more appropriately positioned as semi-rigid inserts for plate-carrier, aerospace, and naval panel applications, with resin-impregnated ORT preferred for rigid hard-armor plates. Persistent gaps—standardized benchmarking, high-rate binder yarn characterization, and functionally graded architectures—are identified as priorities for future investigation.