Seasonal epidemiology and vector ecology of Lumpy Skin Disease in South and Southeast Asia: A comprehensive review of knowledge gaps and future perspectives

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) is a viral infectious disease of cattle and buffalo caused by a Capripoxvirus and mainly spread by biting insects such as mosquitoes, flies, and ticks. First identified in Africa in 1929, it has now become a major transboundary threat in South and Southeast Asia. The disease shows a seasonal pattern, with outbreaks peaking during pre-Monsoon and Monsoon months when warm and humid conditions favor vector multiplication. Climatic factors including temperature, rainfall, and humidity play critical roles in vector abundance and virus transmission, while climate change is likely to expand risk zones further. Despite rising outbreaks, significant gaps remain in understanding LSD. Limited data exist on vector ecology, species-specific transmission roles, and seasonal activity under Asian conditions. Moreover, the absence of climate-integrated prediction models and inadequate information on field-level vaccine efficacy hinder effective control. LSD leads to severe socio-economic impacts such as reduced milk yield, poor animal health, skin damage, and trade restrictions, directly affecting rural farmers. This review emphasises the importance of future research in vector biology, region-specific surveillance, climate-based risk forecasting, and cross-border control measures. Addressing these gaps is vital for improving vaccination, strengthening vector management, and safeguarding livestock production in the region.