Specification asymmetry and digital inclusion: how policy design shapes the access–adoption gap in Morocco

Purpose This study aims to examine how national digital strategy design influences digital inclusion outcomes in Morocco. Although infrastructure expansion has progressed significantly, disparities persist in digital skills and advanced usage. Drawing on van Dijk’s three-level digital divide framework, we investigate whether differences in policy specification and measurement architecture help explain uneven implementation outcomes. Design/methodology/approach The study conducts a longitudinal analysis of Morocco’s digital strategies (MN2013, MD2020/2025) using official evaluations, national survey data and international indices. MD2030 is examined at the design level. A structured comparison with Tunisia and a maturity benchmark with France assess how inclusion objectives are specified, measured and linked to implementation mechanisms. A structured evaluation grid assesses indicator specification across access, skills and usage dimensions. Findings Infrastructure objectives are consistently supported by quantified targets, allocated budgets and formal monitoring systems. Inclusion objectives, however, remain broadly formulated and weakly operationalized. This specification asymmetry is associated with strong connectivity expansion but persistent deficits in digital capabilities and advanced adoption. Tunisia’s digital inclusion index illustrates an alternative model in which vulnerability profiling and territorial targeting are embedded within formal measurement structures. Originality/value The study introduces the concept of specification asymmetry to explain divergence between infrastructure development and citizen-level adoption outcomes. It proposes the Digital Inclusion Operational Framework as a structured tool for evaluating whether national digital strategies translate inclusion goals into measurable and actionable policy instruments. The findings contribute to ongoing debates on how digital governance design shapes implementation performance.