Photocurable plant-based 3D-printed immunomodulatory scaffolds with zeolite and plasma functionalization

The development of immunomodulatory biomaterials is crucial for improving the long-term success of implantable devices by reducing adverse immune responses. In this study, we designed a 3D-printed scaffold using a sustainable, plant-based, photocurable soybean oil modified with zeolite 13X and low-temperature plasma-treated to boost its immunological and biological performance. Zeolite addition introduced structural cohesion and enhanced ion-exchange capacity, while plasma treatment improved surface hydrophilicity and roughness, which are essential for cellular adhesion and immune regulation. Comprehensive physicochemical characterisation confirmed successful integration and surface improvement. In vitro experiments with THP-1 monocytes demonstrated over 90% cell viability, with hemolysis rates below 2%. A significant decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) levels, accompanied by an increase in anti-inflammatory Arginase-1, indicating M2 macrophage polarisation, was noted with the modified scaffolds. Subcutaneous implantation in Sprague-Dawley rats over four weeks resulted in reduced inflammatory infiltration, improved vascularisation, and no signs of systemic toxicity in vital organs. These results demonstrate a synergistic approach combining plant-based photocurable resins, bioactive zeolite microparticles, and plasma engineering to create multifunctional, biocompatible scaffolds. This platform provides a promising translational strategy for the next generation of immunomodulatory implants in regenerative medicine.