Nanoparticle-based precision modeling of primary and three-dimensional cell culture in cancer theranostics

Nanoparticles, a key component of nanotechnology, have revolutionized cancer research and have been developed for applications ranging from targeted drug delivery to robotics for precision drug delivery, offering advanced platforms for drug delivery, imaging, and therapy. Nanoparticles are generally engineered for precision medicine and used to enhance drug efficacy. Although traditional two-dimensional cell cultures are heavily used, they often fail to recapitulate in vivo tumors. This comprehensive review highlights the role of nanoparticles, specifically in cancer research, with a focus on the interaction between primary cell culture and three-dimensional cell culture models. Generally, primary cell cultures are derived from patients’ tumors, which makes them valuable for studying nanoparticle uptake and therapeutic responses. Three-dimensional models generally include spheroids and organoids that mimic the tumor microenvironment, which influences nanoparticle penetration and efficacy. This study presents core disparities, limitations, case studies, and applications in cancer theranostics. Despite many limitations, such as scalability issues and clinical translation challenges, the integration of artificial intelligence tools, organ-on-a-chip systems, and patient-derived organoids may yield promising results for the development of personalized medicines and ultimately enhance the therapeutic aspects of oncology.