Beyond coverage: Timeliness of routine childhood vaccination and its determinants in rural northern Ghana

Background Achieving the goals of Immunisation Agenda 2030 (IA2030) requires a clear understanding of vaccination timeliness and its determinants. We assessed vaccination timeliness and associated factors in two rural districts of northern Ghana. Methods We conducted a community-based analytical cross-sectional study among 3371 caregivers of children aged 0–59 months in Gushegu ( n = 1361) and Nanumba South ( n = 2010) Districts, Northern Ghana, from 24 April to 4 May 2025. The study examined the timeliness of 19 vaccine doses in Ghana's national immunisation schedule. Vaccination status was classified as early, age-appropriate, delayed, unvaccinated, or up to date based on recommended age windows. Cox proportional hazards models were used to identify factors associated with vaccination timeliness. Results Timely vaccination declined progressively across the immunisation schedule in both districts. Bacille Calmette–Guérin had the highest age-appropriate coverage (64.2% in Gushegu and 52.6% in Nanumba South), whereas timeliness decreased across multi-dose vaccine series. Age-appropriate coverage for pneumococcal conjugate vaccine declined from 60.9% to 20.5% in Gushegu and from 51.1% to 21.5% in Nanumba South between the first and third doses. Similarly, timely Pentavalent vaccination declined from 59.6% to 19.8% and from 52.1% to 23.0%, respectively. Rotavirus vaccine age-appropriate coverage dropped to 8.6% in Gushegu and 9.4% in Nanumba South for the third dose. Delays increased with successive doses and were greater in Nanumba South. Possession of a vaccination card was the strongest predictor of timely vaccination (Gushegu: aHR 30.82, 95% CI 12.02–79.03; Nanumba South: aHR 19.09, 95% CI 6.84–53.26). Higher caregiver education improved timeliness, while home or traditional birth attendant delivery reduced timeliness. Conclusion Timely vaccination remains suboptimal in both districts, with marked declines across the immunisation schedule. Strategies to improve vaccination card retention, caregiver education, access to vaccination services, and facility-based deliveries may enhance vaccination timeliness.