Examining theory–skill and summative–formative tensions across school and workplace assessment in China’s tertiary vocational education and training

Abstract This study explores tensions between theory and skills, and between summative and formative assessments across school and workplace settings in four disciplines within Chinese tertiary vocational education and training (VET) institutions. One hundred sixty-six institutional policy documents from four disciplines (computer sciences, food sciences, health sciences, and mechanical and electrical engineering) were analysed using a structural topic modelling approach. Additionally, individual interviews were conducted with 17 workplace and school instructors from the four selected disciplines, and one student focus group was organised per discipline (total n = 20). The interview and focus group transcripts were processed with inductive content analysis. Results show that curricula are overly theoretical and summative. Summative theory-focused written examinations remain dominant, while coursework assessments, which should be formative with feedback, are often used to contribute towards final grades. In addition, school teachers lack sufficient industrial experience to instruct practical skills. Students in workplace settings have limited opportunities for skill development, largely due to economic efficiency considerations. Partnerships between educational institutions and workplace organisations appear mostly shallow. Students often secure internships on their own, and school instructors provide minimal support during internships. Additionally, practical barriers to implementing formative assessments include teacher workload and low assessment expertise. Overall, the goals of VET and assessment reforms regarding skill development and formative assessments are largely unrealised.