Maternal status of female leopards drives spatio-temporal interactions between the sexes

Abstract Intraspecific interactions in solitary carnivores are difficult to study and often overlooked, yet they are fundamental to understanding species ecology and informing conservation. Using 11,290 independent photographic events of 358 individually recognized Far Eastern leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis) collected over a decade (2014–2023), we investigated the drivers of social interactions in this putative formally solitary felid. We tested three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses concerning the co-occurrence and temporal activity patterns of different demographic classes: adult males, lone females without cubs, and females with cubs. Applying recurrent event analysis and diel activity overlap analysis, we found that inter-sexual spatial associations were strongly mediated by female reproductive status. Females with cubs consistently avoided locations recently used by adult males, a pattern consistent with infanticide avoidance. Conversely, lone females were significantly attracted to male-occupied areas, likely to maximize mating opportunities. No significant attraction or avoidance was detected between lone females and females with cubs. All demographic groups exhibited predominantly diurnal activity patterns with high temporal overlap, suggesting that spatial avoidance, rather than temporal segregation, is the primary mechanism mediating male-female interactions. Our findings reveal unexpected flexibility in the social behaviour of a solitary carnivore and demonstrate that female maternal status is a key driver of these dynamics. This nuanced understanding provides a critical, empirically based framework for evaluating the suitability of different male-female combinations in future translocation and population restoration efforts for this critically endangered felid.