Fuel-Driven Coacervates: Design Principles, Dissipative Dynamics, and Life-like Functions

Living systems operate far from equilibrium, continuously consuming energy to maintain transient functional compartments. Mimicking such dynamic organization through bottom-up self-assembly remains a central challenge in systems chemistry and synthetic biology. Synthetic life-like systems aim to recapitulate key features of living matter, including energy-driven (i.e., dissipative) processes, temporary structural organization, chemical communication, and adaptive functionality. Among these, membraneless organelles, particularly coacervates, have emerged as versatile models because of their ability to assemble, evolve, and disassemble in response to fuel-driven processes. Their energy-dependent structural dynamics provides a framework for understanding nonequilibrium cellular organization. In this Mini-Review, we present recent advances in fuel-regulated coacervate systems, highlighting how different classes of fuels directly or indirectly control their formation, evolution, and disassembly. We further discuss how the dissipative, transient nature of these compartments leads to emergent life-like functions and outline their applications in delivery, bio- and covalent catalysis, and signal amplification.