Epigenetic and microbiome modulation as catalysts for next-generation cancer vaccines

Therapeutic cancer vaccine efficacy depends on both immune priming and biological context. Although vaccines can generate clinically meaningful antigen-specific T-cell responses, epigenetic repression, microbiome dysbiosis, baseline tumor PD-L1 expression, and immunosuppressive myeloid populations may limit their effectiveness. This review examines how epigenetic and microbiome modulation can enhance antigen visibility, immune durability, and therapeutic responsiveness, using cervical cancer as a clinically relevant model.