Image-based identification and DEA-based optimization modeling of antibiotic packaging using unsupervised learning techniques

BACKGROUND: Ensuring medication safety requires accurate identification of antibiotic packaging, especially within pharmacy automation and dispensing systems. Advanced imaging and machine learning offer novel avenues for physical package recognition. OBJECTIVE: To investigate visual and textual features of antibiotic packages and evaluate their relationship with identification outcomes using unsupervised learning and efficiency-based analysis. METHODS: Thirty-six antibiotic formulations from Thailand (2016-2021) were analyzed using binary imaging, entropy metrics, packaging area ratio (PAR), and optical character recognition (OCR). K-means clustering was applied to segment package groups, and data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used to assess relative efficiency without assuming predefined functional relationships between inputs and outputs. RESULTS: Nine distinct image clusters were identified. Packages with mid-range entropy (7.1-7.5) and PAR (1.2-1.45) were associated with higher identification consistency. OCR text confidence influenced identification outcomes. DEA identified clusters with relatively efficient input-output configurations. CONCLUSION: Integrating image-derived metrics and OCR-based features supports automated antibiotic package identification. This framework provides a structured approach for evaluating packaging characteristics in pharmacy workflows.