Beyond the ideal type: Investigating ‘mixed preferences’ for who should govern in nine European countries

Abstract Noting widespread disenchantment with representative actors and institutions, a growing field of research has investigated public support for decision-making by alternative actors, such as ordinary citizens and independent experts. However, previous research has mainly focused on ideal-type models of government centred on a single actor, rather than considering that citizens may hold ‘mixed preferences’ for multiple actors. Through a latent profile analysis of survey responses to an established battery measuring preferences for who should govern, we identify six preference types that exist across nine European countries, though their prevalence varies from country to country. The results show that only a small minority of respondents support an ideal-type model, i.e., the representative democrats, while most favour a combination of actors. A sizeable share of respondents continues to support politicians but would like to see greater involvement from either citizens or experts. Finally, we identify three profiles that lack strong theoretical or empirical grounding in previous research but emerge across multiple countries and therefore merit further attention: stealth populists, responsible democrats, and moderates.