Insights into floral biology, breeding behavior and chemical composition of Ferula assa-foetida L. cultivated under Indian Himalayan conditions

Ferula assa-foetida L. is a high value medicinal and spice species, known for its oleo-gum resin (OGR) with significant pharmacological and industrial importance, yet remains critically dependent on wild harvest. Understanding its reproductive biology is therefore essential for its sustainable utilization. However, its floral biology, reproductive strategies, and resin biochemistry under cultivated conditions remain largely undocumented. To address this gap, seeds were stratified, germinated, and cultivated in Himachal Pradesh, India from 2019 to 2025. Inflorescence and floral development were recorded in these plants across phenological stages, and reproductive biology was evaluated through microscopy, pollen viability and dispersal studies, pollen-to-ovule (P:O) ratio estimation, and controlled pollination experiments. The OGR and essential oil composition was characterized using GC–MS, UPLC-PDA at the pre-flowering stage, while residual volatile constituents of senescent root tissue were profiled by GC–MS. The species exhibited a monocarpic andromonoecious habit with a prolonged vegetative phase (5–6 years) prior to flowering and a vertical gradient in floral sex expression. Floral dimorphism, protandry, and compound umbels with a high P:O ratio supported entomophilous outcrossing. Controlled pollination trials indicated a mixed mating system, with significantly higher fruit set in open- and cross-pollinated flowers, and negligible fruiting in autonomous and emasculated controls. Pollen viability declined sharply within 24 h, with dispersal limited to a 1 m radius. Seeds exhibited high viability (> 83%) with yields ranging from 16.7 to 21.2 g per plant. Chemical analysis revealed that pre-flowering resin was enriched in sulfur-containing volatiles and phenolics such as farnesiferol A, ferulic acid, coumarin and umbelliferone, while post-flowering senescent root samples showed elevated terpenoids and fatty acid derivatives. These findings identify the pre-flowering stage as the optimal stage for resin harvest and provide comprehensive data on seed morphology, viability, and yield to support informed seed collection and propagation. Since these two objectives are mutually exclusive, cultivation strategies should designate plants for either resin production or seed harvest. Collectively, these insights provide a scientific foundation for conservation, domestication, and sustainable utilization of this economically important species.