The importance of timing in goose grazing effects on winter wheat yield

Abstract Migratory geese increasingly forage on winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) in northern Europe, intensifying conflicts between conservation and agriculture. While grazing impacts are known to vary considerably, the role of timing in shaping these effects remains underexplored. This study combines empirical yield data from six intensively grazed fields with simulation experiments mimicking worst-case grazing in winter and late spring to assess the importance of timing in goose grazing impacts on winter wheat yield. Results show that even heavy winter grazing did not significantly reduce grain yield, indicating substantial resilience in winter wheat during the dormant phase and a considerable compensatory growth in spring. In contrast, spring grazing consistently reduced grain yield by 7–10%, likely due to interference with growth phases important for grain development. Spring grazing also lowered grain nitrogen content, with potential implications for feed quality. These findings identify timing as the key determinant of grazing impact and suggest that mitigation efforts should prioritise preventing spring grazing to protect yield and grain quality. An early mitigation effort during winter may, however, have a preventive effect, as winter grazing appeared to increase the risk of subsequent grazing damage in spring because the short, grazed sward remained attractive to geese.