Carcinogenic risk in printing industry: A comparative assessment of occupational exposure to solvents across offset, flexographic, and gravure techniques

Volatile organic compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, with ethyl acetate, propanol, and ethanol, are commonly used in printing and pose health risks to workers. Despite numerous studies in printing, comprehensive risk assessments across different printing techniques remain limited. Therefore, this study aimed to carcinogenic and health risk assessment of occupational exposure to chemicals in the printing industries. This cross-sectional study was conducted during 2024–2025 in six printing facilities located in Alborz Province, Iran, representing three printing technologies (offset, gravure, and flexographic printing). Air sampling was performed using NIOSH methods (1501 for BTEX, 1400 for alcohols, and 1457 for ethyl acetate) with analysis by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The USEPA risk assessment model was employed to calculate Lifetime Cancer Risk (LCR) and Hazard Quotient (HQ) for each chemical. The study revealed significant differences in chemical exposure risks among printing techniques. Offset printing showed the highest risks, with benzene exposure averaging 0.47 ppm, corresponding to a LCR of 7.6 × 10 −3 (90% definite cancer risk) and HQ of 22.5. Ethylbenzene in offset printing also presented moderate risks (LCR= 2.4 × 10 −3 , HQ = 4.16). In contrast, flexographic and heliographic printing demonstrated lower risks, with ethyl acetate (HQ = 0.516), 2-propanol (HQ = 0.086–0.128), and ethanol (HQ = 0.31). The findings highlight offset printing as particularly hazardous due to benzene exposure. Flexographic and heliographic printing, while comparatively safer, still require exposure controls for certain solvents. The study emphasizes the urgent need for industry-specific control measures, particularly in offset printing.