Impossible Galaxies and Phantom Biosignatures: A Tiered Evidence Framework for the JWST Paradox

This preprint presents a structured narrative review of recent findings from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), focusing on observational tensions related to early galaxy formation and exoplanet atmospheric characterization. The paper introduces an original Evidence-Tiered Classification Framework (Tier A, Tier B, and Tier C) to distinguish robust spectroscopic evidence from model-dependent interpretations and statistically marginal claims. It applies this framework to key topics including unexpectedly massive high-redshift galaxies, baryonic conversion efficiency, galaxy mergers in the early Universe, the debated K2-18 b biosignature detections, and rapid dust formation in low-metallicity environments. The review also includes a quantitative synthesis, critical analysis of observational biases, and a gap analysis highlighting future research priorities. Rather than arguing against the ΛCDM cosmological model, the framework provides a transparent and reproducible approach for evaluating high-impact JWST discoveries according to their evidential strength.