Protein nanofibrils from oilseed cakes: formation, properties and applications

Oilseed cakes generated during vegetable oil extraction are protein-rich by-products that remain underutilized and are largely directed to low-value animal feed. Transforming these residues into protein nanofibrils (PNFs) provides an effective route for waste valorization and the creation of sustainable functional materials. This review evaluates oilseed cake proteins as PNF precursors, focusing on extraction strategies, fibrillation mechanisms, and the effects of protein structure and processing conditions on nanofibril formation. Conventional acid–heat treatments are discussed alongside emerging techniques such as ultrasonication, microwave-assisted heating, enzymatic hydrolysis, and high-pressure processing, which enable improved control over fibril yield, morphology, and scalability. The physicochemical and techno-functional properties of oilseed-derived PNFs, including rheology, gelation, emulsification, surface activity, and encapsulation capacity, are examined in relation to applications in food structuring, nutraceutical delivery, biodegradable packaging, environmental remediation, and advanced biomaterials. Nutritional quality, digestibility, safety, and allergenicity are also considered, emphasizing their dependence on protein source and morphology.