A review of ultrasonic pasteurization in milk and milk-based beverages using different ultrasound systems and thermal conditions: from mechanistic insights to regulatory challenges

Milk and milk-based beverages are highly susceptible to contamination by foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria, making effective pasteurization essential for ensuring microbial safety. Ultrasound has emerged as a promising alternative pasteurization technology because acoustic cavitation generates physical and sonochemical effects capable of microbial inactivation. However, the antimicrobial efficacy of ultrasound varies considerably depending on ultrasound system configuration, processing conditions, and thermal contribution during treatment. This review provides a microbial safety-oriented overview of ultrasonic pasteurization in milk and milk-based beverages, with particular emphasis on differences among ultrasound systems and processing modes. Specifically, microbial inactivation is compared among cavitation-driven non-thermal ultrasound, ultrasound with natural temperature rise, and thermally assisted ultrasonic treatments. In addition, this review discusses the mechanisms of microbial inactivation, regulatory considerations for industrial applicability, and technological challenges associated with ultrasonic pasteurization. These findings provide insights into the optimization and industrial implementation of ultrasound-based pasteurization technologies for milk and milk-based beverages.