The Soviet intelligence illegals program in the face of counterintelligence pressure: the case of the United States and Canada

Post-World War II Soviet intelligence illegals operations in the United States and Canada started strong in the 1940s and 1950s. However, as they experienced increasing counterintelligence pressure through penetrations, defections, and double agents, it became harder for Soviet services to place illegals in both countries. Soviet services increasingly struggled to find suitable candidates to send as illegals to the United States and Canada. This article analyzes sixty-two illegals dispatched to or designated for the United States and Canada to show that the numbers of illegals dispatched to the United States and Canada after the 1960s decreased, with many being deterred by counterintelligence activities.