Harnessing immunity against breast cancer: from checkpoints to cell therapies
Breast cancer (BC) remains the leading cause of cancer-related mortality and a major contributor to disease burden among women worldwide. Although PD‑1/PD‑L1‑targeting immune checkpoint inhibitors have become a standard treatment for certain triple‑negative breast cancer subgroups, their use across the broaderBCb population is limited by intrinsic resistance, an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), and treatment‑related adverse effects. The present review offers a comprehensive synthesis of the immunotherapeutic paradigm in BC, spanning ICIs, adoptive cellular therapies (CAR-T, CAR-NK, CAR-M, TIL, TCR-T, and CIK cells), and emerging immune modulators. We critically evaluate pivotal clinical trials, discuss cross-cutting challenges—including biomarker development, therapy resistance, and the practical limitations of cellular products—and highlight rational combinatorial strategies. By contrasting the translational readiness of diverse modalities and outlining a framework for personalized therapy, this review aims to inform future research and clinical practice in harnessing immunity against BC.
Authors
- Nor Hayati Ismail (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6116-7590)
- Ali Mussa (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1116-7362)
- Fatmawati Lambuk (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0668-1786)
- Khalid Hajisa
- Rosline Hassan (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0493-1390)
- Noor Fatmawati Mokhtar (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0349-4096)
- Rohimah Mohamud (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2465-6421)
- Maaz Anwer Memon (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2914-1838)
- Mustafa Talib
- Mahasin Hamid
- Mohammad A. I. Al-Hatamleh
- Ruaa Suliman
- Francesco M. Marincola
- Yusuf Lukman
- Alaldeen Yagoub
- Abubakar Daku Bishir
Institutions
- Universiti Sains Malaysia (MY)
- Central South University (CN)
- United Arab Emirates University (AE)
- Omdurman Islamic University (SD)
- Abdullahi Fodio University of Science and Technology (NG)
- Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia (MY)
- Shendi University (SD)
- UPMC Hillman Cancer Center (US)
- University of Nyala (SD)
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (US)
- Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam Malaysia (MY)
- Federal University Dutse
- University of South Florida St. Petersburg (US)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Journal of Translational Medicine
- Published
- 2026-07-23
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-026-08658-1
- Primary Topic
- Cancer Immunotherapy and Biomarkers
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00