Human Factors in Teacher Readiness for Educational Virtual Reality: A CFA and SEM-Based TAM–TPB Study

Teacher adoption of virtual reality (VR) in education appears constrained despite the technology’s potential as an immersive multimodal learning environment. This cross-sectional online survey, based on convenience and snowball sampling, examined adoption perceptions among 408 Romanian teachers from primary, secondary, and tertiary levels using an integrated Technology Acceptance Model and Theory of Planned Behavior framework. Seven constructs were measured on five-point Likert scales and analyzed through internal consistency indices, confirmatory factor analysis, HTMT discriminant validity assessment, structural equation modeling, Spearman correlations, nonparametric group comparisons, supplementary manifest-score regression, and descriptive thematic coding of open-ended responses. The seven-factor CFA model showed acceptable fit (CFI = 0.945, TLI = 0.936, RMSEA = 0.068), and composite reliability and AVE supported convergent validity across all constructs. However, HTMT indicated limited discriminant validity between attitude toward using VR and attitude toward the behavior of adopting VR (HTMT = 0.928). In the SEM model, perceived usefulness showed the largest standardized association with attitude toward using VR, while behavioral intention was mainly associated with attitudinal evaluations and subjective norm; perceived behavioral control showed a weaker standardized path. All scales showed acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α=0.81–0.95), and construct means exceeded the scale midpoint (range: 3.45–4.03), indicating generally positive but differentiated perceptions. Supplementary manifest-score regression was consistent with the SEM results: the unified attitude factor showed the strongest statistical association with behavioral intention, followed by subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Descriptive thematic coding of open-ended responses identified training, infrastructure, equipment access, curriculum-aligned content, cost, technical support, and time as recurrent perceived conditions associated with self-reported VR adoption intentions. The findings suggest that educational VR adoption should be interpreted through self-reported human factors and perceived implementation conditions, including perceived control, access to immersive equipment, practical training, and institutional support.