Key Parameters and Structural Characteristics Governing Tornado and Extreme Wind Loads: A Comprehensive Review

Climate change has been associated with an increasing occurrence of extreme wind phenomena, including hurricanes, tornadoes, and downbursts, with noticeable rises in both their frequency and severity. These events have heightened concerns regarding their devastating impacts on structures, infrastructure, and economies. To provide a comprehensive and reliable review, a large number of previous studies and scientific references were collected and carefully screened. The selection process focused primarily on studies directly related to structural engineering applications, wind-induced structural responses, tornado and hurricane loading mechanisms, and simulation techniques used in wind engineering research. References unrelated to structural behavior, engineering analysis, or wind-resistant design were excluded to maintain the technical relevance and consistency of the review. This review explores parameters influencing wind loads, focusing on tornado flow field characteristics such as swirl ratio, ground roughness, translation speed, and topography. It also examines structural properties such as geometry, material, orientation, and proximity to the tornado path that govern a building’s ability to withstand wind-induced forces. The review evaluates experimental techniques, including wind tunnel tests, tornado simulators, and numerical simulations using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to improve understanding and resilience. These approaches are compared for effectiveness in replicating real-world scenarios and enhancing predictive accuracy. Furthermore, key engineering standards, such as ASCE 7-22 and FEMA guidelines, are highlighted, showing their role in improving structural design, identifying gaps in research, and advocating for future studies. It emphasizes integrating emerging computational technologies, including machine learning, to enhance structural design efficiency and disaster response performance. This review aims to guide researchers and engineers toward developing resilient structures capable of mitigating the impacts of extreme wind events.