Urbanization development characteristics coincide with elevated Anopheles stephensi habitat suitability

Abstract The invasion of Anopheles stephensi into Africa is increasing risks in urban areas, posing challenges to global malaria elimination. Unlike most malaria vectors, Anopheles stephensi is well adapted to urban environments, thereby imposing a substantial burden on urban malaria transmission. Here, we quantify the influence of urbanization on Anopheles stephensi habitat suitability and examine potential underlying mechanisms. Habitat suitability increases along the urbanization gradient, with the highest suitability observed in high-density urban regions. Urbanization increases the habitat suitability, particularly in Africa, with the transition from urban to high-density urban areas showing the greatest increase in suitability. Moreover, we identify construction-related activities as a key pathway linking urbanization to habitat suitability, consistent with the proliferation of artificial larval habitats in built environments. These findings provide a mechanistic understanding of urban-associated risk, inform large-scale malaria predictions to support the integration of vector surveillance with urban planning.