Do restrictive policies suppress national identification? A comparative study of muslim and non-muslim immigrant descendants in Scandinavia

Abstract There is a widespread assumption in many Western European countries that certain immigrant groups and their descendants are reluctant to identify with the host nation. A substantial body of research has documented how factors such as religiosity, perceived discrimination and inter-ethnic contact may serve as determinants of national identification, broadly defined as the emotional and cognitive bond between self and nation. By contrast, we know less about whether restrictiveness in the immigrant policy context - e.g. the extent to which policies limit immigrants’ rights, opportunities, and access to resources - also shapes these bonds. To address this gap in existing knowledge, this study draws on unique comparative survey data collected in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in 2018 covering young adults with a minority background (both Muslims and non-Muslims) as well as a majority control group. Comparing three Scandinavian countries that differ substantially in the restrictiveness of their immigrant policy environments - yet share many structural and cultural characteristics - allows us to examine whether national policy conditions are linked to gaps in national identification between minority and majority groups. The comparative analyses reveal a striking pattern: the restrictiveness of a country’s policy environment does not appear to influence national identification gaps. Thus, Sweden - often portrayed as the least restrictive of the three countries - does not exhibit larger identification gaps than the two other countries. Moreover, the differences between Denmark and Norway are remarkably small.