From ice to atmosphere: reviewing the coupled dynamics of heat fluxes in the cryosphere

Abstract The interaction between glaciers and the atmosphere is generally recognized to affect melt rates, surface energy budgets, and even short-lived weather extremes in high mountain ranges. However, the Himalayan system remains hard to observe due to steep terrain and very few long-term data from the glacier surface. In winter, conditions in valleys such as Hunza or in the central Karakoram are not conducive to keeping instruments intact, increasing the uncertainty about how latent and sensible heat fluxes contribute to snow and ice melt, local moisture behavior, and temperature regimes. Recent observations in the field and model results indicate that turbulent heat exchange can drive glacier cooling and sublimation and can generate small-scale feedbacks that may interact with regional flow. At the same time, uncertainties persist linked to sparse measurements, debris-covered glacier surfaces, and a loose connection between atmospheric and cryospheric models in complex terrain. This review synthesizes current knowledge on turbulent heat flux dynamics in the Himalayas, with brief excursions into the Andes, Alps, and other cold mountain systems. The objective is to identify the key processes driving melt and to reveal the gaps that hinder confident projections of meltwater and climate sensitivity in High Mountain Asia.